The first five books of the Old Testament were, according to both Jewish and Christian traditions, attributed to Moses until comparatively recent times. To be sure, there were some exceptions, but generally the Mosaic authorship of these books was not questioned until the era of the movement known as “higher criticism.” Biblical scholars today almost universally agree that the Pentateuch is composed of at least four separate and distinct narratives written by different persons who were widely separated historically. Evidence overwhelmingly suggests that within each of these four documents, the work of more than one author is present. Nothing in the first four of these books asserts, or even suggests, that Moses was the author. Deuteronomy, the fifth book, is presented as though it were an address delivered by Moses, but the contents of the book indicate quite clearly that it was written a long time after Moses’ death. Hebrew authors commonly wrote as though the words they used had been spoken a long time before.
Early Judean History
The earliest of these four main narratives is known as the Early Judean History. The unknown author is designated by the letter J because supposedly he was a prophet of the southern kingdom of Judah. The narrative begins with the story of Creation as it is recorded in the second chapter of the Book of Genesis and concludes with an account of the establishment of the monarchy in the land of Canaan. There are several distinctive characteristics of this history. Yahweh is the name used for the deity and stands for a god who is conceived in terms that are crudely anthropomorphic, or humanlike. He possesses a physical body, walks in the Garden of Eden during the cool of the day, talks directly with Adam, and is a dinner guest in the tent of Abraham. In many respects, he behaves in a manner that resembles the typical chief of a primitive tribe. The place names that are used belong to the southern kingdom. The implied ethical standards are somewhat lower than those of later narratives. The various parts of the history are organized in a manner that sets forth the author’s conception of the divine purpose to be realized on earth and the reasons why its fulfillment has been delayed.
This history appears to have been written about 850 B.C. The source materials used for its composition include not only the written documents available at that time but a number of traditions that were passed on orally from older generations. In the Creation story, man is formed out of the dust of the earth, and Eve, the first woman, is created from Adam’s rib. The story of the Fall, which has to do with the eating of forbidden fruit, is followed by an account of the brothers Cain and Abel. Because sin has become so widespread over the face of the earth, Yahweh causes the Great Flood to appear but spares Noah and everything that is with him in the ark. After the flood, Noah pronounces a curse on Canaan and gives blessings to Shem and Japheth.
Abraham’s calling to perform Yahweh’s work is followed by an account of his journey to Egypt. After Abraham’s return home, a promise is made to him concerning the birth of a son and the inheritance of the land of Canaan by his descendants. Although Abraham and his wife have reached an advanced age, Isaac is born in fulfillment of the promise. Isaac’s two sons, Jacob and Esau, struggled in their mother’s womb before they are born, thus indicating the strife that will continue for centuries between the Israelites and the Edomites. Jacob deceives his father and tricks his brother, Esau, out of his birthright. He then goes to a distant land, where he marries the two daughters of Laban and enters into an agreement whereby he obtains a large share of his uncle’s property. On his return home with the members of his family, he meets his brother, and the two are reconciled.
Jacob’s favorite son, Joseph, is sold by his brothers into slavery but eventually comes to hold a powerful place in the government of Egypt. Jacob and his sons and their families move to Egypt because of a famine in the land of Canaan. Their descendants increase in number, which causes an Egyptian pharaoh to become alarmed lest the Israelite colony become too powerful. Accordingly, the pharaoh begins a policy of oppression that places burdens on the Hebrews that are greater than they can bear. Moses is summoned by Yahweh to deliver his people from this oppression. After a series of plagues is visited upon the Egyptians, the Hebrews leave the land where they were enslaved and begin their march through the wilderness toward the land of Canaan. After a description of the difficulties that they encounter during this march, the author concludes his history with an account of their entrance into the land and the conquering of a portion of it.
