Booker T. Washington Booker T. Washington (1856-1915) was one of the most influential black leaders during the period immediately following Reconstruction (1865-77). Extremely hard working, he attended school at night. When he heard about Hampton Institute in Virginia, a school for blacks, he enrolled in order to study brick masonry, paying for his education by working as the janitor. Known mainly for his founding of Tuskegee Institute, Washington believed that blacks should be educated only by trade schools. He felt that they should develop manual skills and improve their craft at the building trades and that blacks should become experts in farming. (One of Washington's first staff appointments was Dr. George Washington Carver, whose brilliance in the field of agriculture is not as well documented as his "peanut" discoveries.) Washington believed strongly that artistic endeavors and intellectual pursuits were not in the best interest of black people trying to emerge from a long period of slavery. Washington felt that having a trade was more logical for black people than painting or poetry. In his "Atlanta speech," Booker T. Washington urged blacks to cultivate friendly relations with white men. He suggested that blacks devote themselves to agriculture, mechanics, domestic service, and the professions — placing more value on acquiring an industrial skill than on attaining a seat in Congress. Washington's long-time opponent, W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963), was a man who dramatically espoused the opposite of Washington's philosophy. Du Bois, educated at Fisk, Harvard, and the University of Berlin, was a writer and political activist, activities which Washington perceived as frivolous. Black writers tend to side with W. E. B. Du Bois, who believed in the importance of artistic endeavors (which Washington believed to be a frivolous activity). Hansberry has one of her characters call Booker T. Washington a "fool," which is an elitist comment since only the very well read of her audience would even have known of the political rivalry between the two men. Blacks began to "choose sides," debating constantly over who was right, and over which philosophy was actually in the best interest of black people. Hansberry has the comical character of Mrs. Johnson act as the defender of Booker T. Washington's philosophy, as she says, "I always thinks like Booker T. Washington said that time — 'Education has spoiled many a good plow hand.'" Hansberry, herself, speaks through Mama, who dismisses Washington as a "fool." And when Mrs. Johnson goes on to say that Washington "was one of our great men," Mama counters, almost angrily, with, "Who said so?" The debate does not continue and, at this point, Mrs. Johnson concedes by saying, "You know, me and you ain't never agreed about some things, Lena Younger. I guess I better be going — ."
Chicago's Southside the area in Chicago in which many blacks live; referred to as "the ghetto," the poor neighborhood of Chicago.
crocheted doilies The totally bare, classic-line furniture of the fifties contrasted starkly with the furniture of the forties. In the forties, it was customary to place crocheted doilies on the arms and head rests of an overstuffed living room sofa and two sofa chairs, which were usually already covered with slipcovers. This was done in an effort to protect the furniture and to hide worn places; the country was just coming out of the Great Depression and great value was placed on one's possessions — especially if a family was poor. Having "forties furniture" in the fifties is a clear indication of poverty.
a descendant of Chaka Chaka, also known as Shaka, or Shaka Zulu, was an early nineteenth century African warrior-king who implemented warfare techniques and weaponry which have been studied and adopted by military leaders and personnel worldwide ever since Shaka's time. Shaka Zulu incorporated into his own army the warriors from defeated tribes; he also established military towns in order to ensure that his armies were well provided for and excellently trained. Shaka Zulu initiated the idea of complex battle formations in order to outflank and confuse his enemies, not unlike those strategies used in football formations. In addition, Shaka Zulu revolutionized the existing Zulu weaponry by designing a short-handled stabbing spear, known as the "assegai." To this day, the name Shaka Zulu garners high praise in military circles and commands great respect. Hansberry's description of Walter as he chants to the African music with Beneatha includes a reference to Shaka Zulu, or Chaka: "On the table, very far gone, his eyes pure glass sheets. He sees what we cannot, that he is a leader of his people, a great chief, a descendant of Chaka, and that the hour to march has come."
